Bilingual signs in the Alsace area

Bilingual signs in the Alsace area Introduction The focus of this essay is on the bilingual signs in the Alsace area. The Alsace, like all of France, is officially monolingual. Even so, in towns such as Strasbourg, Mulhouse/Mà ¼hlhausen or Colmar bilingual street signs have been noticed. Interest in German and Alsatian dialects, repressed until the 1970s, has recently increased. However it may be too late as Alsatian is no longer widely spoken by younger generations. Alsatian may be relegated to an antiquarian curiosity and as such is no longer a threat to French nationalism. This essay presents some primary data in the form of photographs of street signs and demonstrates that there is a pattern to these signs. Bilingual signage only appears in the historic centre, where outside of this the signs are monolingual. Therefore installing street name signs in both French and Alsatian/German may be a tourist draw rather than a genuine attempt to increase the awareness of the language. Bilingual Signs The linguistic landscape is defined as the signs on buildings and shops, road signs, street names and advertising billboards within a geographical territory, which serve the function of conveying information and also a symbolic function (Cenoz Gorter, 2006; Landry Bourhis, 1997). The symbolic function that is served is to promote the language and thus the identity of a minority. Where in previous generations, the dominant culture would obliterate the language of a minority culture living within its confines, either deliberately or simply due to a lack of concern, in the current multicultural climate, minorities are celebrated. Sohamy (2006) refers to language battles taking place between top-down and bottom-up approaches. The top-down approach is from government, public or economic facilities, where bottom-up is when those of an autonomous status such as local business and private citizens initiate the action. These two approaches interact and this is where Sohamy suggests that the battles for control arise. In terms of bilingual signage, these battles would be fought on the linguistic landscape with shop signs being in one language and road signs being in another for instance, or road signs being bilingual and shop signs monolingual. The appearance of language in the public space serves as an important mechanism through which language battlesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ take place. Thus, the public place serves as a tool in the hands of different groups for the transmission of messages as to the place of different languages in the geographical and political entities and for influencing and creating de facto language realities. (Sohamy, 2006, p.111) These battles may erupt into criminal behaviour such as the defacing of road signs where the language which is considered unacceptable is obliterated (Chen, 2007). These are civil disobedience actions by people with national pride and pride in their language as a symbol of their nationality, and these actions would be the result of a bottom-up process. In Wales the focus has shifted in recent decades from bottom-up actions like these to a top-down process whereby the government and all official signs must legally be bilingual. A bottom-up protest in Wales now would be a monolingual English sign erected by a shopkeeper who does not wish to pay for translation services. The impact of the bilingual signage in Wales is that drivers take longer to read the sign than if it were monolingual in their dominant language (Jamson, 2004). However, even with this safety concern, and given that there are no longer any Welsh speakers who do not also speak English, it remains politically expedient to oblige all official signs to be bilingual in Welsh and English rather than monolingual English (Merriman Jones, 2008). Thus Wales is officially a bilingual country with a unique history of language activism. The Welsh language has a much stronger position than other minority European languages such as Basque. The Welsh bilingual signs are no longer designed to be quaint or attract ethnic tourism as they may have been in the past (Pitchford, 1995). Other minority European language speakers may still be patronised in this way and have looked to Wales as a model for challenging this attitude. The Alsace Context The Alsace is an historically disputed geographical area between France and Germany. It is an area of linguistic contact between the two dominant languages French and German, and has a unique and complex history of cultural conflict, military occupation and political domination (Kegel, 2003). Since the fifth century AD when the area was occupied by two Germanic tribes, German dialects have been spoken in this area. The Vosges mountain range to the West have served to isolate the population from the French and kept Alsace on the German side of the Germanic-Romance language border. Even when Alsace was officially French it has been easier to travel to Germany rather than into France as recently as the 1970s (Rademaekers, 1973). During the 70s Alsatians had access to television channels from both France and Germany. Most Alsatians at that time spoke both French and German and 80% also spoke Alsatian (Hessini, 1979). However in recent years there has been a decline in use and it is repor ted that younger generations do not speak Alsatian (Bister-Broosen, 2002). French is the state language, is used in education and officialdom, and parents are reluctant for their children to miss learning French as a native tongue due to this prestige. As languages, French and German are considered to be mutually exclusive, French being a Romance language. Alsatian is a Germanic dialect, derived from the Alemanni who settled in the area in the fifth century, and is understood to be German with French borrowings (Hessini, 1979). In fact it has been seen that there are appreciable differences between the dialects in different areas of Alsace and Lorraine, although the whole area is said to speak Alsatian (Judge, 2000). Alsatian was never a written language; Gutenbergs printing press in 1440 precipitated the standardisation of written German. The dialect that was chosen to be the written German was the one considered to be most easily understood by all Germanic dialect speakers. This then became the official and prestige German language and other dialects dwindled. German is the literary medium for the unstandardized Alsatian dialect (Hessini, 1979). The region of the Alsace has changed allegiance or been invaded numerous times through wars between France and Germany, and always seems to be on the losing side (Rademaekers, 1973). Between 1870 and 1945, the Alsace experienced five different changes of nationality, each of which required a change of official language (Vassberg, 1993). It has been French since the end of the Second World War and although Alsatian as a language has more in common with German than with French, as a French province, French has been the official language and Alsatian has been repressed until the 1970s. For example, French educational authorities have forbidden the teaching of German-language courses in Strasbourg primary schools. (Rademaekers, 1973, online). France has become more multicultural in recent years, with bilingual education being introduced, however there is a strong historical context for this monolingualism which stems back to the time of the French Revolution: a nation state which built itself on the principle of one language, one nation. This has meant that all citizens must share the same language in order to be equal before the law; plurality of languages or dialects was felt to be a threat to the cohesion of the nation and for two centuries linguistic policies were based on the elimination of dialects. (Hà ©lot, 2003, p.255) Thus the elimination of Alsatian has been a deliberate policy of French government. In recent years attitudes have changed due to the acknowledgement that learning a second language while young will enhance a childs educational prospects and later their employment prospects (Hà ©lot, 2003; Judge, 2000). However it may well be too late for Alsatian to continue to exist as a language in its own rig ht. If it is no longer spoken, then it will be doomed to become something quaint and old-fashioned, only reeled out for specific purposes (Bister-Broosen, 2002). Alsatian as a spoken language is used on some radio and television, but in all written formats, e.g. education and newspapers, German is used in its place (Judge, 2000). There has not been political language activism in the Alsace in the same way as there has been in other European countries, such as Wales described above. In the 1970s there existed a small-scale group Front de lAlsace libre and there now exists an Alsace dAbord movement which promotes bilingualism on all levels (Judge, 2000). However this is also a small movement and is described as an extreme right-wing movement playing the regionalist card to gain support (Judge, 2000). The supremacy of French in France continues to be absolute, and has been confirmed by Article 2 of the new Constitution of 22 June 1992. This article states that the language of the Republic shall be French. Elected regional authorities use only French. However they do now provide financial aid for the teaching of standard German in Alsace and in 1993 set up the Office rà ©gional du bilinguisme dAlsace (Regional Office for Bilingualism in Alsace). Public and semi-public services are provided solely in French, this includes telephone bills and receipts, telephone directories, hospital signs, electricity bills, post-office and police-station signs (Euromosaic, 2009). Oral communication between the authorities and the public is generally in French, as public employees tend not to be natives of Alsace. In common with other areas in Europe, there is a great deal of geographical movement and there are many other languages spoken in this area not only French, German and Alsatian, including non-European languages. Primary Source Analysis Street Signs in Strasbourg Street signage in Strasbourg has since 1991 begun to be bilingual in French and German. As has been previously mentioned, Alsatian has no written form, and standard German is used in its place, therefore on street signs it would be difficult to distinguish whether they are Alsatian or German as both are the same when it comes to written format. Bilingual signs are also seen in other Alsatian towns such as Mulhouse/Mà ¼hlhausen or Colmar. However, this analysis will concentrate on Strasbourg. On analysis of these street signs, their location and purpose, it might be said that the sign makers are paying lip-service to Alsatian rather than a genuine attempt to reinstate the language. This primary source analysis will begin with street name signs in the historic centre of Strasbourg and will move on to general road signs around Strasbourg for comparison, and signs for the river Rhine. It will then move on to a discussion of the use of bilingual signs, including their patterns and prevalence and opinions on their use. Bilingual Street Name Signs in the Centre of Strasbourg Figure 1 Katzegass (source http://www.lexiophiles.com/english/france-%E2%80%93-belgium-bilingual-road-signs) In Strasbourg, an important and historic street Rue Du Chat (Cat Street) is also signed as Katzegass. It can be seen from the photograph in Figure 1 that the French sign is clearly older than the Alsatian/German. Both in style and condition, the French is seen to be the original with the newer German sign placed above. Figure 2 Isernemannsplatz (source http://www.grenzen.150m.com/strasbourgGB.htm) Another historic street in Strasbourgs tourist centre is Place De LHomme De Fer (Iron Mans Square). Figure 2 is a photograph of the two new signs that have replaced the old monolingual sign, the aperture clearly visible beneath the two signs. In this case, both new signs have been produced in the same style although different lettering is used. The French is in capitals and is placed above the Alsatian/German which is in italic script. This photograph was taken in 2001. Road Sign Examples Figure 3 Arrival to Strasbourg on the French side (source http://www.grenzen.150m.com/strasbourgGB.htm) Figure 3 is a photograph of a monolingual French sign Communautà © Urbaine de Strasbourg (literally translated as Urban Community of Strasbourg or City of Strasbourg). This photograph was taken in 2001 on the French side of Strasbourg, on entering the city. Figure 4 Arrival to Strasbourg on the German side (source http://www.grenzen.150m.com/strasbourgGB.htm) Figure 4 depicts a monolingual German sign on arrival to Kehl, a district of Strasbourg on the German side, and Figure 5 is a photograph of a monolingual German sign leaving Kehl and travelling through Strasbourg towards France. Comparison of Figure 3, 4 and 5 demonstrates that directional signs in Strasbourg are monolingual French on the side nearer to France and German on the side nearer to Germany. Figure 5 Leaving Kehl towards France (source http://www.grenzen.150m.com/strasbourgGB.htm) Signs for the River Rhine Figure 6 Leaving Strasbourg (source http://www.grenzen.150m.com/strasbourgGB.htm) Leaving Strasbourg, a monolingual French sign indicating le Rhin (the Rhine river) is depicted in Figure 6. And Figure 7 depicts a German sign for Rhein the same river but seen from the German side. Figure 7 Leaving Strasbourg near the Europabrà ¼cke (source http://www.grenzen.150m.com/strasbourgGB.htm) Therefore it can be seen in comparing Figures 6 and 7, that signs for the river are monolingual in French or German depending on which side of the river is being signposted, rather than being bilingual. Patterns and Prevalence of Bilingual Signs Strictly speaking, Figure 1 and Figure 2 are not images of true bilingual signs, they are both images of two monolingual signs placed together. However due to the close proximity of these signs, and due to the fact that there are no true bilingual signs to be found, i.e. two languages on one sign, these will be classed as bilingual signage in this analysis. From these seven images it can clearly be seen that in signage other than street names, the signs in the Strasbourg area are monolingual. Given the cultural and historical significance of the Rhine river, it may be expedient to use bilingual signage for this, however as these photographs (taken in 2001) indicate, this has not been the case. It appears that the only examples of bilingual signage to be found in Strasbourg are in the historic centre, which may be considered the most tourist-visited area. Thus the patterns of signs in this region appear to be German on the side of the city nearer to Germany and French on the side nearer to the rest of France. This includes road signs for the towns and areas and for the river. In the centre there is bilingual signage for the street names. Opinions on Bilingual Signs People do not believe that the French government will promote the use of German. For instance there is little funding available for research projects into German in French universities. There is little encouragement to use written or spoken German in public life; there is little acknowledgement of German as contributing to Frances cultural richness. People are discouraged from giving their children names that are too German although proper names and place names have remained in their traditional correct German form (Euromosaic, 2009). Public notices, door signs, hospital signs, school and trade signs are all in French. As can be seen from this primary source analysis, monolingual German road signs are only evident on the German side of the city. Euromosaic (2009) reports that a number of Commune authorities in France have begun to install bilingual street signs and that these usually appear in historic town centres. This is reportedly due to public pressure, and in Strasbourg this pressure group is referred to as Action-Pirate. The appearance of these signs in historic tourist areas appears to be a salve to indicate government support of a language that no longer presents a challenge to the dominant language of the state. If it is limited to use on street name signs, it become folklorique and antiquarian. It may be the equivalent of the English Ye Olde Teashoppe signs which are understood to be a reference to cultural history rather than a genuine attempt to reinstate a dead form of the language. This may be a cynical view, however with no evidence of bilingual signage outside of these tourist areas, as might be seen in a true bilingual country such as Wales, it is clear that the French authorities are making no effort to support the use of Alsatian in the Alsace. Instead it appears that the language is used as a gimmick to attract ethnic tourism. Conclusion This essay has analysed the prevalence and patterns of bilingual signs in Strasbourg. It has been seen that bilingual signage only appears in the historic centre, where outside of this the signs are monolingual. The conclusion drawn from this is that these signs form a gimmick to be used as a tourist draw. These signs are top down in Sohamys (2006) mechanism, and have a purpose other than simply naming the street. As part of the linguistic landscape, they point to the cultural history of the space rather than being needed for directional purposes.

Kohlberg’s Moral Judgment Model

The focus of Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Judgment Model is to investigate and assess how the concept or consciousness about morality arises and what constitutes this perception about morality. He provides six stages of development which explains how a child obtains and develops his own idea of moral action. When a child experiences a dilemma in which he or she must be able to come up with a particular decision and actualize it, Kohlberg tells that the child’s judgment could be explain through his model. The first three stages are crucial for the reason that the child’s response is dependent on his or her initial orientation on morality. The first stage explains that a child’s response might be based on the idea of obedience and punishment. The child would act in such a way that he or she obeys what the immediate authority imposes to him or her (e. g. rules set in the house or in the school). The right action for the child would be if he or she is able to follow the rules which would also make him or her free from any form of punishment. The child would assert that he or she must not such and such acts to prevent being punished. The second stage is when the child realizes that his or her actions, whatever they are, have equivalent consequences. If he or she would act like this for the benefit or harm of others he or she might think that the same thing would be done for or against him or her. In short, his or her actions would be based on how he or she perceives the result of his or her actions which is still directed towards his or her own interests. The third stage explains that the child in this period learns that it is not all about him or her or not always geared towards his or her own satisfaction. In this stage, the child becomes conscious about how others perceive him or her. Thus, his or her actions are not just dependent on what he or she likes but also on how others would see him or her as a moral person. The child would think that â€Å"I ought not to tell a lie because others will see me as a bad person for doing so. † In short, the concept of conventional morality starts at this point.

The Portrayal of Women in Joseph Conrads Heart of...

Women have gained equality with men over the many centuries of the evolution of the modern western civilization. Hence, it cannot be overlooked that there still exist many literary examples of social disregard for woman potential. Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness exemplifies the Western patriarchal gender roles in which women are given the inferior status.p Not only are women portrayed as being inferior to men, but Marlows (the protagonists) seldom mentioning of them in his Congo adventure narrative symbolizes his view of their insignificance. There is a total of five women presented in Marlows narrative but only three of them are significant minor characters: Marlows aunt, Kurtzs African mistress, and Kurtzs Intended. The†¦show more content†¦She appears to be a greedy soul that wants a family member of hers to become wealthy through terrorizing and robbing innocent citizens of country for their valuable possession; ivory. From her perspective, the noble cause was as she pu t it weaning those ignorant millions from their horrid ways. It is hard to comprehend how she knows the natives of Congo to be horrible people without personally interacting with them. This talk from his aunt actually makes Marlow feel uncomfortable since he later learns that his aunt and the rest of the British are the truly ignorant millions, and not the natives of Congo. The next mentioning of a female character in Heart of Darkness is that of Kurtzs Intended. Since Marlows interaction with her comes at the end of the story, Kurts African mistress is the next female character Marlow encounters upon reaching the Inner Station. Her first appearance is when the ill Kurtz is being taken aboard the steamboat and with body remarks to her, Marlows Russian counterpart describes her as being mischievous. Marlows choice of words to describe the mistress contrasts this. 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Cold War Timeline

The Cold War was fought in the aftermath of World War Two, from the collapse of the wartime alliance between the Anglo-American led Allies and the USSR to the collapse of the USSR itself, with the most common dates for these identified as 1945 to 1991. Of course, like most historical events, the seeds from which the war grew were planted much earlier, and this timeline starts with the creation of the world’s first Soviet nation in 1917. Pre-World War Two 1917 †¢Ã‚  October: Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. 1918-1920 †¢Ã‚  Unsuccessful Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War. 1919 †¢Ã‚  March 15: Lenin creates the Communist International (Comintern) to promote international revolution. 1922 †¢Ã‚  December 30: Creation of the USSR. 1933 †¢Ã‚  United States begins diplomatic relations with USSR for the first time. World War Two 1939 †¢Ã‚  August 23: Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact (‘Non-Aggression Pact): Germany and Russia agree to divide Poland. †¢Ã‚  September: Germany and Russia invade Poland. 1940 †¢Ã‚  June 15 – 16: USSR occupies Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania citing security concerns. 1941 †¢Ã‚  June 22: Operation Barbarossa begins: the German invasion of Russia. †¢Ã‚  November: US begins lend-lease to USSR. †¢Ã‚  December 7: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor causing the US to enter the war. †¢Ã‚  December 15 – 18: Diplomatic mission to Russia reveals Stalin hopes to recover gains made in the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact. 1942 †¢Ã‚  December 12: Soviet-Czech alliance agreed; Czechs agree to co-operate with the USSR after the war. 1943 †¢Ã‚  February 1: Siege of Stalingrad by Germany ends with Soviet victory. †¢Ã‚  April 27: USSR breaks off relations with Polish government-in-exile over arguments about the Katyn Massacre. †¢Ã‚  May 15: Comintern is closed to appease Soviet allies. †¢Ã‚  July: Battle of Kursk ends with Soviet victory, arguably the turning point of the war in Europe. †¢Ã‚  November 28 – December 1: Tehran Conference: Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill meet. 1944 †¢Ã‚  June 6: D-Day: Allied forces land successfully in France, opening a second front which liberates Western Europe before Russia needs to. †¢Ã‚  July 21: Having ‘liberated’ east Poland, Russia sets up the Committee of National Liberation in Lublin to govern it. †¢Ã‚  August 1 – October 2: Warsaw Uprising; Polish rebels attempt to overthrow Nazi rule in Warsaw; Red Army sits back and allows it to be crushed to destroy the rebels. †¢Ã‚  August 23: Romania signs armistice with Russia following their invasion; a coalition government is formed. †¢Ã‚  September 9: Communist coup in Bulgaria. †¢Ã‚  October 9 - 18: Moscow Conference. Churchill and Stalin agree percentage ‘spheres of influence’ in Eastern Europe. †¢Ã‚  December 3: Conflict between British and pro-Communist Greek forces in Greece. 1945 †¢Ã‚  January 1: USSR ‘recognises’ their communist puppet government in Poland as the provisional government; US and UK refuse to do so, preferring the exiles in London. †¢Ã‚  February 4-12: Yalta summit between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin; promises are given to support democratically elected governments. †¢Ã‚  April 21: Agreements signed between newly ‘liberated’ communist Eastern nations and USSR to work together. †¢Ã‚  May 8: Germany surrenders; end of World War Two in Europe. Late 1940s 1945 †¢Ã‚  March: Communist-dominated coup in Romania. †¢Ã‚  July-August: Potsdam Conference between US, UK, and USSR. †¢Ã‚  July 5: US and UK recognize communist-dominated Polish government after it allows some members of the Government-in-exile to join. †¢Ã‚  August 6: The US drops the first atomic bomb, on Hiroshima. 1946 †¢Ã‚  February 22: George Kennan sends the Long Telegram advocating Containment. †¢Ã‚  March 5: Churchill gives his Iron Curtain Speech. †¢Ã‚  April 21: Social Unity Party formed in Germany on Stalin’s orders. 1947 †¢Ã‚  January 1: Anglo-American Bizone formed in Berlin, angers USSR. †¢Ã‚  March 12: Truman Doctrine announced. †¢Ã‚  June 5: Marshall Plan aid program Announced. †¢Ã‚  October 5: Cominform Founded to organize international communism. †¢Ã‚  December 15: London Foreign Ministers’ Conference breaks up without agreement. 1948 †¢Ã‚  February 22: Communist Coup in Czechoslovakia. †¢Ã‚  March 17: Brussels Pact Signed between UK, France, Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg to organize a mutual defense. †¢Ã‚  June 7: Six Power Conference recommends a West German Constituent Assembly. †¢Ã‚  June 18: New currency introduced in the Western Zones of Germany. †¢Ã‚  June 24: Berlin Blockade Begins. 1949 †¢Ã‚  January 25: Comecon, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, created to organize Eastern bloc economies. †¢Ã‚  April 4: North Atlantic Treaty signed: NATO formed. †¢Ã‚  May 12: Berlin Blockade lifted. †¢Ã‚  May 23: ‘Basic Law’ approved for Federal Republic of Germany (FRG): Bizone merges with French zone to form a new state. †¢Ã‚  May 30: People’s Congress approves German Democratic Republic Constitution in East Germany. †¢Ã‚  August 29: USSR detonates the first atomic bomb. †¢Ã‚  September 15: Adenauer becomes first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. †¢Ã‚  October: The Communist People’s Republic of China proclaimed. †¢Ã‚  October 12: German Democratic Republic (GDR) formed in East Germany. 1950s 1950 †¢Ã‚  April 7: NSC-68 finalized in the US: advocates a more active, military, policy of containment and causes a large increase in defense spending. †¢Ã‚  June 25: Korean War begins. †¢Ã‚  October 24: Pleven Plan approved by France: rearmed West German soldiers to be part of a European Defence Community (EDC). 1951 †¢Ã‚  April 18: European Coal and Steel Community Treaty signed (The Schuman Plan). 1952 †¢Ã‚  March 10: Stalin proposes a united, but neutral, Germany; rejected by the West. †¢Ã‚  May 27: European Defence Community (EDC) treaty signed by Western nations. 1953 †¢Ã‚  March 5: Stalin dies. †¢Ã‚  June 16-18: Unrest in the GDR, suppressed by Soviet troops. †¢Ã‚  July: Korean War ends. 1954 †¢Ã‚  August 31: France rejects the EDC. 1955 †¢Ã‚  May 5: FRG becomes a sovereign state; joins NATO. †¢Ã‚  May 14: Eastern Communist nations sign the  Warsaw Pact, a military alliance. †¢Ã‚  May 15: State Treaty between forces occupying Austria: they withdraw and make it a neutral state. †¢Ã‚  September 20: GDR recognized as a sovereign state by USSR. FRG announces the  Hallstein Doctrine  in response. 1956 †¢Ã‚  February 25: Khrushchev begins  De-Stalinization  by attacking Stalin in a speech at 20th Party Congress. †¢Ã‚  June: Unrest in Poland. †¢Ã‚  October 23 – November 4: Hungarian Uprising crushed. 1957 †¢Ã‚  March 25: Treaty of Rome signed, creating the European Economic Community with the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. 1958 †¢Ã‚  November 10: Start of Second Berlin crisis: Khrushchev calls for a peace treaty with the two German states to settle borders and for Western nations to leave Berlin. †¢Ã‚  November 27: The Berlin Ultimatum issued by Khrushchev: Russia gives West six months to solve Berlin situation and withdraw their troops or it will hand East Berlin over to East Germany. 1959 †¢Ã‚  January: Communist government under Fidel Castro set up in Cuba. 1960s 1960 †¢Ã‚  May 1: USSR shoots down US U-2 spy plane over Russian territory. †¢Ã‚  May 16-17: Paris Summit closes after Russia pulls out over U-2 affair. 1961 †¢Ã‚  August 12/13:  Berlin Wall  built as east-west borders closed in Berlin and GDR. 1962 †¢Ã‚  October – November: The Cuban Missile Crisis brings the world to the brink of nuclear war. 1963 †¢Ã‚  August 5: Test Ban treaty between UK, USSR, and US limits nuclear testing. France and China reject it and develop their own weapons. 1964 †¢Ã‚  October 15: Khrushchev removed from power. 1965 †¢Ã‚  February 15: The US begins bombing of Vietnam; by 1966 400,000 US troops are in the country. 1968 †¢Ã‚  August 21-27: Crushing of Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia. †¢Ã‚  July 1: Non-Proliferation Treaty signed by UK, USSR, and US: agree not to assist non-signatories in gaining nuclear weapons. This treaty is the first evidence of  dà ©tente-era cooperation  during the Cold War.   †¢Ã‚  November:  Brezhnev Doctrine  Outlined. 1969 †¢Ã‚  September 28: Brandt becomes Chancellor of FRG, continues the policy of  Ostpolitik  developed from his position as Foreign Minister. 1970s 1970 †¢Ã‚  Start of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) between US and USSR. †¢Ã‚  August 12: USSR-FRG Moscow Treaty: both recognize each others territories and agree to only peaceful methods of border change. †¢Ã‚  December 7: Warsaw Treaty between FRG and Poland: both recognize each others territories, agree to only peaceful methods of border change and increased trade. 1971 †¢Ã‚  September 3: Four Power Treaty on Berlin between US, UK, France and USSR over access from West Berlin to FRG and relation of West Berlin to FRG. 1972 †¢Ã‚  May 1: SALT I treaty signed (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks). †¢Ã‚  December 21: Basic Treaty between FRG and GDR: FRG gives up Hallstein Doctrine, recognizes GDR as a sovereign state, both to have seats at UN. 1973 †¢Ã‚  June: Prague Treaty between FRG and Czechoslovakia. 1974 †¢Ã‚  July: SALT II negotiations begin. 1975 †¢Ã‚  August 1: Helsinki Agreement/Accord/’Final Act’ signed between US, Canada and 33 European States including Russia: states the ‘inviolability’ of frontiers, gives principles for state peaceful interaction, co-operation in economics and science as well as humanitarian issues. 1976 †¢Ã‚  Soviet SS-20 medium-range missiles stationed in Eastern Europe. 1979 †¢Ã‚  June: SALT II treaty signed; never ratified by the US Senate. †¢Ã‚  December 27: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. 1980s 1980 †¢Ã‚  December 13: Martial law in Poland to crush the Solidarity movement. 1981 †¢Ã‚  January 20: Ronald Reagan becomes US President. 1982 †¢Ã‚  June: Start of START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) in Geneva. 1983 †¢Ã‚  Pershing and Cruise missiles placed in West Europe. †¢Ã‚  March 23: Announcement of the US ‘Strategic Defense Initiative’ or ‘Star Wars’. 1985 †¢Ã‚  March 12: Gorbachev becomes the leader of USSR. 1986 †¢Ã‚  October 2: USSR-USA summit at Reykjavik. 1987 †¢Ã‚  December: USSR-US summit as Washington: US and USSR agree to remove medium-range missiles from Europe. 1988 †¢Ã‚  February: Soviet troops begin to pull out of Afghanistan. †¢Ã‚  July 6: In a speech to the UN, Gorbachev repudiates the  Brezhnev Doctrine, encourages free elections and ends the Arms Race, in practice ending the Cold War; democracies emerge across Eastern Europe. †¢Ã‚  December 8: INF Treaty, includes removal of medium-range missiles from Europe. 1989 †¢Ã‚  March: Multi-candidate elections in the USSR. †¢Ã‚  June: Elections in Poland. †¢Ã‚  September: Hungary allows GDR ‘holidaymakers’ through the border with West. †¢Ã‚  November 9: Berlin Wall falls. 1990s 1990 †¢Ã‚  August 12: GDR announces a desire to merge with FRG. †¢Ã‚  September 12: Two Plus Four treaty signed by FRG, GDR. US, UK, Russia, and France cancels remaining rights of former occupying powers in FRG. †¢Ã‚  October 3: German Reunification. 1991 †¢Ã‚  July 1: START Treaty signed by US and USSR reducing nuclear weapons. †¢Ã‚  December 26: USSR dissolved.

The Civil War And Reconstruction - 2195 Words

Chapter: The Civil War and Reconstruction Overview Decades before the actual Civil War the nation was under national unity, however that shifted with new political system and movements. Coming of the Civil War Resistance of Slavery Slavery was implemented in the Americas prominently during the colonial era. Their contribution and labor to plantations was incomparable. As detailed by Fitzhugh, after centuries of oppression and abuse resistance opposing slavery were in many forms beginning with the written constitution in late 18th century. Forms of resistance to slavery were common as escape, sabotage, and most notably resistance to work at a fast rate. Slaves revolts also became common and were discovered throughout the whole nation. †¢ 1800 – Gabriel Prosser’s conspiracy, led by urban workers in Virginia †¢ 1822 – Denmark Vesey’s plans to make south Carolina revolt †¢ 1831 – Nat Turner revolt in Virginia. Reform Movements The abolitionist movement in the 1820s became much more significant as economical demands grew. The cotton production was at an all time high years before the Civil War, as a result, in order to make more profit from it slavery spread, as labor was necessary. Significant figures such as Frederick Douglass, Harriet Truman and William Lloyd garrison were among the participant in the movement that gained great amount of followers. They were also responsible for organizing Underground Railroad, in which provided escape for slaves. The movement was moreShow MoreRelatedReconstruction Of The Civil War1108 Words   |  5 PagesAmerica’s Mindset Although the end of the Civil War and the beginning of the Reconstruction brought great hope to America’s four million former slaves, the efforts of Congressional Reconstruction ultimately failed to establish equal rights for the freedmen because the racist mindset still dominated American society at the time and Democratic influence steadily overcame Republican control in Congress. Despite the Union’s victory, the end of the Civil War brought many significant national problemsRead MoreThe Civil War and Reconstruction1315 Words   |  5 Pages Reconstruction The main issue between the states that seceded from the Union and those that remained in the former unity was that of states rights, of which the right for citizens to own slaves was of primary concern. It is often argued that one or the other was the main reason for the conflict, but they both played a major part because the people of the Northern United States and the Southern states of the nation lived such different lives. It is true that people in the North had owned slavesRead MoreReconstruction Of The Civil War951 Words   |  4 PagesHistory 11 7 May 2015 Reconstruction In the beginning of 1865, the Civil War came to a close, abandoning over 620,000 dead and a destructive path of devastating all over the south. The North now was confronted with the task of reconstructing the destroyed and aggrieved Confederate states. On April 11, two days after Confederate General Robert E. Lee’s submission, President Abraham Lincoln delivered his last public address, during which he designated a merciful Reconstruction plans and encouraged sympathyRead MoreReconstruction Of The Civil War847 Words   |  4 Pages Microtheme One - Reconstruction The Reconstruction happened in period following the end of the American Civil and the main goal was to reintegrate the Southern Confederate States back into the Union after they had been defeated by the Union (Northern States). As would be expected, the process was met with many challenges as the interests of both groups had to be addressed. There was debate over the terms under which the Confederate States would be allowed back into the Union, and whether it wasRead MoreThe Civil War And Reconstruction977 Words   |  4 Pagescalled the Reconstruction period â€Å"America’s Second Revolution†, his characterization was correct. Reconstruction can be viewed as a revolution because the previous social order, slavery, was replaced suddenly by a more favorable one, freedom for African-Americans. There was a long period of politicization for incorporating free African-Americans into white society. Reconstruction also revolutionized the preconceived notion that the states ha d autonomous power. The Civil War and Reconstruction were revolutionaryRead MoreReconstruction Of The Civil War1560 Words   |  7 PagesPrior to the Civil War, the United States’ economy was essentially agricultural based; slavery in the South was the key player in its prosperous economy. Hence, it is no wonder the South stood in defense of slavery’s permanence when challenged with the demand for abolition. The Southern proslavery Confederate states fought against the Northern antislavery Union states during the Civil War. 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There were many issues that had to be addressed such as what to do with the free blacks in the south and how states would be readmitted to the Union. This era saw the rise of the Radical Republicans. The government was going through changes, southerners were going through changes, and blacks were going through changes. WhitesRead MoreReconstruction Of The Civil War1054 Words   |  5 Pages As the civil war was ending many people could see that the odds of th e north winning increased dramatically however many people can argue this idea based on the several events that took place during the second phase of the civil war. Carl Schurz concluded, â€Å"The Civil War was a revolution, but half accomplished.†(Roark et al 434) Reconstruction started before the civil war ended until 1877, when people of the United States tried figuring out how to put the country back together. Many people hadRead MoreThe Civil War And Reconstruction1357 Words   |  6 PagesCivil War/ Reconstruction - Following the Civil War, the United States underwent a huge process of reconstruction to unifying and reconstructing the war-torn state. The nation still remained utterly divided between North and South in essentially all aspects of life including religion, race, and government. President Andrew Johnson,who succeeded President Abraham Lincoln enacted various policies in order to unite the country. These policies included friendly policies that pardon ed Southerners while

Classification of Literature Free Essays

string(79) " in a catastrophe in which the protagonist through his actions is brought low\." CLASSIFICATIONs OF LITERATURE I. Divisions of Literature Literature Prose Poetry Fiction Nonfiction Dramatic Narrative Lyric Drama Short Story Novel Tale Fable Myth Legends Folktales Essay Biography Autobiography Diary History Chronicle News Anecdote Tragedy Comedy Opera Operetta Ballad Epic Metrical Tale Metrical Romance Ode Sonnet Song Elegy POINT OF COMPARISON| PROSE| POETRY| Form| Paragraph| Verse| Language| Words and rhythms of ordinary and everyday language| Metrical, rhythmical, figurative language| Appeal| Intellect| Emotions| Aim| Convince, Inform, Instruct| Stirs the readers imagination, present an ideal of how life should be and how life can be| A. Prose –is an ordinary form of written or spoken language without rhyme or meter, either fiction or nonfiction. We will write a custom essay sample on Classification of Literature or any similar topic only for you Order Now Prose is writing that resembles everyday speech. The word prose is derived from the Latin word, â€Å"prosa† which literally means straightforward. Prose is adopted for the discussion of facts and topical reading and does not adhere to any particular formal structures other than simple grammar. Fiction  Ã¢â‚¬â€œisthe form of any  narrative  or  informative  work that deals, in part or in whole, with information or events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary—that is, invented by the  author. 1. Drama –is the stage presentation of an action or story. It is a story in either verse or prose to be presented on stage. -a term generally applied to a type of literature that seeks to present actual life in brief intense form visibly in front of an audience. -a dialogue written for interpretation by several characters with directions from the author telling what the characters do and with directions giving the background or locale of the action. Playwrights–aredrama writers. Types of Drama: a. Comedy –is shown if man is victorious in the struggle of forces (not necessarily funny). b. Tragedy –is shown if man is overcome or defeated by the opposing forces (does not necessarily end in violence and death). 2. Short Story–is a brief story usually with one character or two and a simple plot. It can be read in a short span of time. Edgar Allan Poe –is the Father of short story and popularized this literary genre. 3. Novel –is an invented prose narrative that is usually long and complex and deals especially with human experience through a connected sequence of events. One example of a novel is fantasy novel which is often set in worlds much different from our own and usually includes magic, sorcery, and mythical creature. 4. Tale –is an imaginative narrative of an event usually a story of fantasy like folktales, fairy tales and tall tale. -reflects man’s desire to know the unknown. -full of magic, enchantment and fantastic situations. Though unreal, it is full of sound and practical wisdom that is real and worthwhile. -helps man find solutions to his daily problems by mirroring in the worlds created by his mind. 5. Fable–is a story intended to teach a lesson or morals in which animals are presented as characters. 6. Myth –is an anonymous, traditional story that explains a belief, a custom, or a mysterious natural phenomenon. -comes from the Greek word muthos, which simply means â€Å"story†. -were created out of human need to make sense of the universe and explain how the world and its human inhabitants came to be. 7. Legends –is a story coming down from the past and narrates the origin of a place, thing or object. 8. Folktales –is a story that is created by the â€Å"folk†Ã¢â‚¬â€the common people—and passed along orally from generation to generation. include legends, fables, tall tales, fairy tales, fairy tales, and ghost stories. -are entertaining stories about ordinary people who survive by luck, by using their wits, and by relying on their own natural goodness. * Nonfiction –prose writing that narrates real events. 1. Essay –a short piece of nonfiction prose that examines a single subject from a limited point of view. -comes from a French word, â€Å"essai† which means â€Å"an attempt or trial†. -was made popular by a German writer, Michel Eyquiem de Montaigne in 1580. He published two volumes of his short compositions which he called â€Å"ESSAIS†. Francis Bacon, the reputed Father of English Essay, write formal essays which were cold and objective. Two Major Types: a) Formal Essay –are usually serious and impersonal in tone. -they are written to inform or persuade, they are expected to be factual, logical, and tightly organized. -put emphasis on purpose and subject. b) Informal Essay –also called as Personal Essay. -generally reveal much about the personalities, mood, habits, likes, dislikes and feelings of their authors. -tend to be conversational in tone and looks into personal experiences and observations. . Biography –is a story of a person’s life na rrated or written by another person. 3. Autobiography –is a story of a person’s life narrated or written by himself. 4. Diary –is a daily record of transactions, observations, and events. -is a type of writing that records daily personal reflections, feelings and 5. History –is a chronological account or record of significant events affecting a nation or institution. 6. Chronicle –is a record of a series of events or mere listing of what happened. It does not evidence, comments or reactions. 7. News–is an information about recent and important events or developments either printed in newspapers or broadcast by the media. | 8. Anecdote –a brief and sometimes witty story that focuses on a single interesting incident or event, often in order to make a point or teach a moral lesson. Sometimes an anecdote reveals the character of a famous person. B. Poetry –comes from the Greek word â€Å"poiein†, which means â€Å"to make†. -a kind of rhythmic, compressed language that uses figures of speech and imagery designed to appeal to our emotions and imaginations. uses figurative language that quickens and stimulates the imagination; adds to the effectiveness of the language; gives clearness, force, beauty and memorableness to our ideas. Types of Poetry: 1) Dramatic poetry –deals with plays in verse and which are performed on stage. a) COMEDY –is a play that shows that the hero is victorious against natural or human forces; not necessaril y funny. Example: Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream b) TRAGEDY –an important series of events in the life of a protagonist of high birth or noble status. The casually related events culminate in a catastrophe in which the protagonist through his actions is brought low. You read "Classification of Literature" in category "Essay examples" Example: Sophocle’s Oedipus Rex, Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet c) OPERA–is a play usually set to music (sung) and with orchestral accompaniment; characterized by elaborate costuming, scenery and choreography. Example: Giuseppi Verde’s Aida d) OPERETTA –is a short amusing musical play. Example:Polished Pebbles 2) Lyric poetry–is subjectively and intensely emotional -characterized by its musical quality -comes from the word lyre, a harp-like stringed instrument. the love lyric poem plumbs comes from the depths of the human heart. -some early Greek lyricists are Archilochus, Callinus, Sappho and Pindar. Examples: The Eagle by Alfred Lord Tennyson, Love Poem by TitalLacambra-Ayala a) Ode –is elaborate lyric of majestic tone on a serious and dignified theme. It is usually written on a solemn or a highly momentous occasion and addressed in an exalted manner to some object or person. It echoes the emotions or feelings of the people. b) Song –is a short lyric poem intended to be sung. Songs may be sacred or secular, national or personal. Sacred songs –include hymns, anthems and religious lyrics. Secular songs –may be of any themes, or emotions. c) Sonnet –is a lyric of 14 iambic-pentameter lines according to a definite pattern. Two distinctive forms of these type of poetry are: i. Italian or Petrarchan sonnet –was perfected by Petrarch in the 14th century. It consists of an octet and a sestet with a rhyme scheme abbaabba,cdcdcd or cdecde or cddeee. The octet, which may be descriptive or narrative, leads to reflection or resolution in the sestet. ii. Shakespearian sonnet–a poem of three quatrains and a couplet with the rhyme scheme ababcdcdefefgg. The quatrains are so related that they lead to a significant statement of thought or conclusion in the last two lines. The sonnet as a form of poetry made its first appearance in the 16th century with the sonnet of Spencer and Sir Philipp Sidney. Shakespeare wrote sonnets on the accepted themes on love and friendship. Of the sonneteers, Wordsworth has been considered the most prolific. Most prominent of the 19th century sonnet writers was Elizabeth Barret Browningwhose â€Å"Sonnets From the Portuguese† had held great appeal especially to lovers all over the world. ) Elegy –is a poem of mournful tone on the theme of death characterized by a marked reflected element. 3) Narrative poetry Narrative poems describe or relate events. Lyric poems express the poet’s thoughts and feelings. Dramatic poems set forth life and character by means of speech and action. The following are examples of narrative poetry: a) Epic –is a long narrative poem that relates the grea t deeds of a larger-than-life hero who embodies the values of a particular society. Most epics include elements of myth, legend, folklore and history. Most epics heroes undertake quests to achieve something of tremendous value to themselves—like the Gilgamesh—or to their society—like the hero of Virgil’s Aenied. Among the world’s greatest epics are the Greek â€Å"Iliad† and â€Å"Odyssey† attributed to Homer and the Anglo-Saxon â€Å"Beowulf†. These epics are called authentical epics having sprung as they were from the people and having no known author. b) Ballad –a song or songlike poem that tells a story. Most ballads have a regular pattern of rhythm and rhyme and use simple language and refrains as well as other kinds of repetition. Ballads usually tell sensational stories of tragedy, adventure, betrayal, revenge, and jealousy. c) Metrical tale –is a short narrative verse intended to be read in one setting. Its subject matter is drawn from life and may deal with any subject matter and any class of people. Chaucer’s â€Å"Canterbury Tales† falls under this category. d) Metrical Romance –is a long, rambling love story in verse which appeals to the sense of the marvelous. It is largely concerned with the adventures and exploits of brave knights, romantic love, deeds of chivalry and religious pursuits. The characters and events are far removed from reality, often passing into the realm of the purely fantastic. The Arthurian tales are the best known of the metrical romance of the middle ages. FIGURES OF SPEECH Figure of speech  Ã¢â‚¬â€œisthe use of a  word  or  words  diverging from its usual meaning. It can also be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a  phrase  with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a  rhetorical figure, figurative language  or a locution. Figures of speech provoke a thought process and bring depth to the language. To be able to use them well is an art, which can be mastered over time. The more you read, the more you will be able to understand. With the help of the following figures of speech examples, you too can master the art of using them appropriately. The following figures of speech are commonly used: 1. Simile –a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two seemingly unlike things by using a connective word such as like, as, than or resembles. Examples:a full moon like an accusing face skinas white as snowflakes an actor’s hand opening more gracefully than a blossom cloudsresembling stuffed animals 2. Metaphor –a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two seemingly unlike things without using any connective words. Direct metaphor –states that one thing is another. The starts are icy diamonds† -Hewas a lion in the battlefield. Implied –like â€Å"against her black formal gown, she wore a constellation of diamonds† which implies a comparison between diamonds and stars and between the black gown and a night sky. 3. Metonymy –is the use of an attribute of an object or of something closely associated it to represent that object. Examples:The counsel to the defend ant addressed the bench. The pen is mightier that the sword. 4. Synecdoche –is a figure of speech that substitutes a significant part of something for the thing itself. Examples:50 heads of cattle (â€Å"head† is used to mean whole animal) The president’s administration contained the best brains in the country (â€Å"brains† is used for intellectually brilliant persons) 5. Personification –a kind of metaphor in which a nonhuman thing or quality is talked about as if it were human. In poetry, personification invites the reader to view the world as if natural and inanimate objects possess the same feelings, qualities and souls that people do. Examples:hands of a clock, an angry sky, a tree that looks at God all day 6. Hyperbole –a figure of speech that uses exaggeration to express a strong sentiment or create a comic effect aimed at either. -also called as overstatement or exaggeration. -often used to capture a sense of intensity or to emphasize the essential nature of something. Example: sweating to death in a stuffy room (hyperbole is used to express extreme discomfort) 7. Paradox –an apparently self-contradictory but is actually true or statement or sentiment that appears contradictory to common sense yet is true in fact. Example: she killed him with kindness, a well-known secret agent, 8. Oxymoron–combination of two seemingly contradictory or incongruous words. Examples: wise fool, deafening silence, cruel love, a stripper’s dressing room 9. Irony –a contrast or discrepancy between expectations and reality—between what is said and what is really meant, between what is expected and what really happens, between what appears to be true and what is really true. Irony in literature falls into three major categories: a. Verbal Irony–occurs when a writer or speaker says one thing but really means the opposite. Example: When you tell a friend who shows up an hour late for an appointment, â€Å"I just love being kept waiting in the rain†. b. Situational Irony –occurs when what actually happens is the opposite of what is expected or appropriate. Example: In Greek mythology, when Zeus falls in love with a mortal woman named Semele. Zeus promised to give her anything she wants. To his dismay, she wants to see him in his true form as the Lord of Heaven. Zeus reluctantly agrees, and he burns her to death. c. Dramatic Irony –occurs when the audience or reader knows something important that a character in the story or play doesn’t know. It can heighten a comic effect or generate suspense. Example: In Oedipus Rex, when the Corinthian messenger tells Oedipus that the king of Corinth has died of natural causes, Oedipus believes he has been released from the prophecy that he will murder his father. The audience, however, knows that the truth has yet to come to light. 10. Alliteration –refers to the repetition of any particular sound among words placed close together, in a sentence or line. These are mainly consonant sounds, but can be vowel sounds too. Example:Don’t delay dawn’s disarming display. Dusk demands daylight. Sara’s seven sisters slept soundly in sand. 1. Apostrophe–a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent or dead person, a deity, and abstract quality, or something nonhuman as if it were present and capable of responding. In literary pieces, this figure of speech usually starts with an exclamation ‘O’. Examples of apostrophe are: Exampl es:O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo? –  Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, That I am meek and gentle with these butchers! Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of times. –  Julius Caesar, William Shakespeare. 2. Onomatopoeia–thisfigure of speech imitates the sounds produced by the objects or actions. Examples:The  buzzing  of bees. The  whirring  of the washing machine. Clap, squish, snort, and whine VERSIFICATION Versification –is the art of making verse. It is based on the principles of prosody (theory of which versification is the practice. Verse –is the language in which the recurrent elements of rhythm exhibit patterns that can be identified and measured. Basis of Verse in English: 1. Accent or Stress –in all words of more than one syllable, one syllable is pronounced with stress more than the others. This emphasis is a combination of pitch, duration, loudness and timbre (accent or stress). Two kinds of syllables: stressed and unstressed 2. Foot –a metrical  unit composed of stressed and unstressed syllables. Four kinds of feet: a. Iamb or Iambic –refers to one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable. Example: aBOVE ^| / ^| /| ^| / ^| /| ^ / ^| /| ^| /| The| falling| out| of| faithful| friends,| renewing| is| of| love|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | b. Trochee or Trochaic –refers to one stressed syllable followed one unstressed syllable. Example: Apple / ^| / ^| /| ^| / ^| Double,| double| toil| and| trouble| c. Anapest or Anapestic –refers to two unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable. Example: unconcerned ^| ^| / ^| ^| /| ^| ^ /| I| am| monarch| of| all| I| survey| d. Dactyl or Dactylic –refers to one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. This is the reverse of anapestic. Example: TENderly /| ^| ^| / ^^| Take| her| up| tenderly| 3. Meter –refers to a measure or patterned count of a poetic line. -the number of feet in a line. The number of metrical feet in a line is described as follows: * Monometer— one foot * Dimeter— two feet Trimeter— three feet * Tetrameter — four feet * Pentameter — five feet * Hexameter — six feet * Heptameter — seven feet * Octameter— eight feet 4. Stanza –group of lines of fixed number, meter and rhyme pattern, repeated throughout the poem. Some of themore usual stanza forms are: a. Couplet –two lines, u sually rhyming b. Triplet –a unit of three lines of verse c. Quatrain –a unit of four lines of verse d. Quintet –a unit of five lines of verse e. Sextet or sestet –a unit of six lines of verse f. Rhyme royale or Chaucerian stanza –consists of seven iambic pentameter lines with the rhyme abc bb cc. . Spencerian stanza –consists of eight iambic pentameter and an Alexandrine (an iambic hexameter line). h. Blank verse –iambic pentameter lines without rhymes. i. Free verse –is a verse free of the essentials of rhyme and meter. Rhythm:  the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. Scansion:  describing the rhythms of poetry by dividing the lines into feet, marking the locations of stressed and unstressed syllables, and counting the syllables. Thus, when we describe the rhythm of a poem, we â€Å"scan† the poem and mark the stresses (/) and absences of stress (^) and count the number of feet. The scansion of this quatrain from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 73 shows the following accents and divisions into feet (note the following words were split: behold, yellow, upon, against, ruin’d): ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|   |   |   |   |   | That| time || of| year || thou| mayst || in| me || be| hold || | | | | | ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|   |   |   |   |   | When| yel || low| leaves, || or| none, || or| few, || do| hang ||   | | | | | ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|   |   |   |   |   | Up| on || those| boughs || which| shake || a| gainst || the| cold,| ||   |   |   |   |   | ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|   |   |   |   |   | | Bare| ru || in’d| choirs || where| late || the| sweet| birds| sang ||   |   |   |   |   |   | From this, we see the rhythm of this quatrain is made up of one unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable, called an iambic foot. We also see there are five feet per line, mak ing the meter of the line pentameter. So, the rhythm and meter is iambic pentameter. 5. Sound –refers to the sensation preserved by the sense of hearing. In poetry, there are three forms of sound as follows: Rhyme –this is the matching of final vowel or consonant sounds in two or more words. There are four types of rhyme: a. End Rhyme –when the corresponding sounds happen at the ends of line. b. Internal Rhyme –when the corresponding sounds happen within lines. c. Exact or perfect rhyme –the rhyming words share corresponding sounds, stresses and similar number of syllables. d. Imperfect or slant rhyme –the rhyming words do not exactly share corresponding sounds. 6. Imagery –refers to the specific details that stimulate senses or the concrete representation of a sense impression, feeling or idea. Images can either be one of the following: a. Visual Image –it is something seen b. Aural Image –it is something heard c. Tactile Image –it is something felt d. Olfactory Image –it is something smelled e. Gustatory Image –it is something tasted f. Metaphorical or Symbolic Image –this suggests an idea or feeling beyond what a given image literally image describes. 7. Diction –means choice of words in reference to their effectiveness, clearness or correctness. However, it is also important to know what these words imply or indicate. There are two types of getting meanings, that is, either denotation or connotation. Denotation is also known as the dictionary meaning while connotation refers to a meaning apart from the thing explicitly suggests or describes. How to cite Classification of Literature, Essay examples

Frees William Gibsons Neuromancer Neuroma Essay Example For Students

Frees William Gibsons Neuromancer Neuroma Essay ncer EssaysNeuromancer Neuromancer revolutionized the way people look at technology. Many people were scared of cyberspace. They felt it would change the way the world was run. Some even thought that meals would begin to be served in pill form, and the world be ruled by darn dirty primates. Throughout Neuromancer we see a very vivid dystopia. We see our first sign of the dystopia in chapter one. It begins with Case, whose name fits him very appropriately. He treats his body as an object. He uses it just to log onto cyberspace. Case has been injected with a poison that keeps him from surfing through cyberspace. This has created a dystopia within Case. He used to make his living through cyberspace. He now injects himself with drugs in an attempt to try and find a cure. Another way we see the dystopia through Case is the room he lives in. They are called coffins, which is a very appropriate name. These rooms are extremely small. Another sign of dystopia is when Case goes to Japan in h opes of finding a cure on Japans black market. They have a big supplier of organs there. This demonstrates the struggle in Japan. In Cases time there is such a high demand for organs that they will sell them illegally over the black market. The black market most of the time represents the scum of society. There crime runs rampant. People will get killed for their organs, just so someone can make a few extra dollars. The next sign of this book being a dystopia is Ratz. He is supposed to represent the experiments that society is playing on the people. His body is composed of mostly artificial goods. Gibson named him Ratz too, because he represents the lab rat of the book. He is supposed to represent what society will do to you if you give in to it. He has no control over what he has become, just like the little lab rat. Another sign of dystopia is the way the computers have changed everything. The computers run peoples lives in Neuromancer. It seems no matter where Case goes there is always someone watching him. Wintermute has the phones ring one time when Case walks by. This demonstrates the power that the Ais have in Neuromancer. The artificial intelligence is another example of the dystopia in Neuromancer. When an AI is running thing in the world, there are problems. When the Tessier-Ashpool family created these beings in a hope to better have control over the world. The plan backfired on them and they went insane. Neuromancer and Wintermute begin to battle over cyberspace. This created turmoil within the society. Throughout Neuromancer we see many signs of a dystopia. The society is flipped upside down. Gibson struck fear in many eyes because of this book. He made people view cyberspace from a totally different perspective. Through the vivid dystopia that his mind created he changed the minds of a lot of Americans.